Safrole and sesamol, containing ring structures identical to those found in sesamin, are carcinogenic. They are more volatile as well, suggesting the possibility that sesame seed oil must be cooked to get rid of these carcinogens before the benefits of sesamin in sesame seed oil can be realized. Piperine in black pepper similarly has a single ring structure similar to sesamin, and it is again carcinogenic. This striking homology raises concerns about berberine and various antidepressant drugs like Paxil. Significantly, black peeper has also been reported to contain aflatoxin, a potent carcinogen, and black pepper is fumigated at US borders, so substituting chaste berries for black pepper in ones grinder might be advisable, if not pregnant.